Rivalry and Decision-Making in Dogs

dogs research science

Rivalry and Decision-Making in Dogs

Comment  

The relationship between two household dogs affects their decisions, according to new research.

If you have more than one dog, you might have noticed that if one goes over to sniff a particular spot, sometimes the other dog will also go over there. It’s called local enhancement, in which one dog (we call them the ‘demonstrator’) draws the other dog’s attention to a specific location. It’s a type of social learning that is found in many species.

Dr. Christy Hoffman and Dr. Malini Suchak (Canisius College) investigated whether local enhancement is affected by rivalry between dogs that live in the same household. The dogs were classed as either low- or high-rivalry based on their owners responses to questions on the C-BARQ.

The dog rivalry questions assessed how likely the dog is to be aggressive towards the other dog in the household, or to be aggressive when the other dog approaches when they are sleeping, eating, or playing with a toy.

After conducting two experiments, the scientists found that,

“When allowed to make a decision quickly, low-rivalry dogs were more heavily influenced by dog and human demonstrators than high-rivalry dogs, but this difference between high-rivalry and low-rivalry dogs disappeared when dogs were forced to wait 5 s before approaching the plates. Because the demonstrator and observer dogs lived together in the same household, the pre-existing social relationship between the dogs is particularly likely to have influenced how attentive they were to the dog demonstrator dog and, as a result, their performance on the task.”

Dogs from two-dog households were tested in their own home. Within a pair, the dogs did not necessarily have the same rating for rivalry (i.e. it could be two high, two low, or one high and one low-rivalry dog).

Fifty dogs took part in the first study. The experimental set-up involved two paper plates on the floor, to which a research assistant added some food. Under the watchful eye of one dog, the other dog (the ‘demonstrator’) was allowed to walk up to one of the plates, scoff the food, and was taken out of the room.

Then the dog was allowed to approach one of the plates. Would they go to the – now empty – plate the demonstrator dog had gone to, or would they go to the plate with the food on?

Photo: Dima Zverev; top, Bill Anastasiou (both Shutterstock.com)

It’s worth noting first of all that the human holding the dog’s leash had their eyes closed and faced the other way so they would not see which plate the demonstrator dog went to (and so could not influence the dog).

And also – very importantly – whichever plate the dog chose to approach, the empty one or the one with food on, they were allowed to eat the food that was left.

The results showed there was an effect of rivalry. Dogs who scored low on rivalry were more likely to go to the empty plate than those who were rated as high-rivalry.

Interestingly, this was also the case in a human control condition, in which only one dog was in the room, and the human research assistant removed the food from one of the plates.

The scientists say,

“These results suggest that low-rivalry dogs, as compared to high-rivalry dogs, may be more susceptible to local enhancement and, therefore, more likely to copy other dogs’ and humans’ actions.”

However, when there was a 5 second delay before the dog could choose which plate to go to, then the low-rivalry dogs were also more likely to go to the plate with food on instead of the empty plate.

The delay condition always happened after the condition in which dogs could make an immediate choice. This meant it was possible, even though the dogs got the food anyway, they had learned to get the food faster.

So the scientists conducted a second experiment with a new set of 24 dogs. In this experiment there was always a 5-second delay before the dog could go to one of the plates.

This time, rivalry was not linked to any effects; both low- and high-rivalry dogs were more likely to go to the plate with food on. This suggests that it is in fact the delay that caused the local enhancement effect for low-rivalry dogs to disappear.

The researchers made a video about their research that explains what they found:




Of course, we cannot say what was going on inside the dogs’ heads when they took part. But it seems that for low-rivalry dogs, the lack of food on the plate did not affect their decision to go to that plate first. Perhaps for the high-rivalry dogs, because they were not as tolerant of the other dog, they did not pay as much attention to where it went.

One of the nice things about this study is that it looked at how dogs behaved in a situation with another dog they were very familiar with. The scientists say,

“understanding the nature of established dog–dog relationships needs more attention from researchers. This study constitutes a first step toward better understanding that dynamic.”

You can read my interview with Dr. Christy Hoffman about her research, foster failures, and what makes Anthrozoology so exciting. You can also follow the Canisius Canine Research Team on Facebook.

P.S. Please check out our beautiful t-shirts that raise funds for my local branch of the BCSPCA.

Reference

Hoffman, C. L., & Suchak, M. (2017). Dog rivalry impacts following behavior in a decision-making task involving food. Animal Cognition, 1-13.

Potential Causes of Problems in Pet Store Puppies

dogs puppies research science

Potential Causes of Problems in Pet Store Puppies

Comment  

A review of the research finds pet store puppies are more likely to be aggressive as adults, and considers the reasons why.

Amy Laurel Photography (Shutterstock)

Several studies have found puppies that come from commercial breeding establishments (CBEs) have a higher rate of behaviour problems than those from responsible breeders. A new review by Frank McMillan looks at the evidence from seven published studies, and then turns to the literature on puppy development to consider the possible causes of these problems.

Essentially, many different stresses at a time when puppies really need to have positive experiences are the likely culprit.

Puppies need to have lots of positive experiences during the socialization period (from 3 until 12 – 16 weeks) to help prepare them for later life. If they are in a commercial breeding establishment, it is not preparing them for life in a family home. But puppies from commercial breeders are also exposed to other sources of stress that may negatively impact their behaviour.

The main behaviour problem associated with pet store puppies is aggression, whether to family members, strangers, or other dogs.

McMillan writes,

“the data from 7 published studies using surveys of dog owners suggest that dogs sold through pet stores and/or born in high-volume CBEs have an increased frequency of a variety of undesirable adulthood behaviors compared with dogs from other sources, particularly noncommercial breeders. The most common finding (6 of 7 reports, or 86%) was an increase in aggression directed toward the dog’s owners and family members, unfamiliar people (strangers), and other dogs.” 

The solution, McMillan says, is to reduce stress at all early stages of the puppy’s life, including the prenatal stage (reducing the mother’s stress levels).

In addition, McMillan says, all puppies should have a socialization program:

“A high quality social and stimulus exposure program should be instituted for puppies beginning no later than 3 weeks of age and continue through the end of the socialization period during which the puppy will pass through the hands of the breeder, the pet store staff, and the new owner at 12-16 weeks.” 

What’s wrong with puppies from pet stores? 

Puppies sold in pet stores are typically sourced via a broker, and come from large commercial breeding establishments. They are often referred to as puppy mills or puppy farms, because they are like battery farms for dogs.

Talya Photo (Shutterstock)

Commercial breeding establishments vary a lot, and while some are clean, others are dire.

McMillan writes,

“CBEs are characterized by large numbers of dogs, maximal efficiency of space by housing dogs in or near the minimum space permitted by law, breeding dogs spending their entire reproductive lives in their cages or runs, group and solitary housing, dogs rarely if ever permitted out of their primary enclosures for exercise or play, no toys or enrichment, minimal-to-no positive human interaction/companionship, and inadequate health care.  

Commonly reported conditions present in many but not all CBEs include cage flooring made of wire mesh, accumulation of feces, ammonia odor, no windows and poor ventilation, inadequate protection from inclement weather and temperature extremes, insufficient or contaminated water and spoiled food, serious untreated medical conditions (e.g., advanced dental disease), extensive matting of hair, commonness and apparency of stereotypical behaviors, evidence of starvation, and presence of deceased adult dogs and puppies.” 

Sources of stress for puppies from puppy mills 

The paper considers the different possible sources of stress for a puppy from a CBE, as stress in the early stages of a puppy’s life may be linked to later behaviour problems.

Genetics 

Some behaviour problems, including fear of loud noises, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and dog-dog aggression, seem to have a genetic component. But this is typically not taken into account when breeding dogs. McMillan reviewed the trade magazine for most commercial breeders and found no references to breeding for temperament in the last ten years.

Prenatal Stress 

Stress during pregnancy is linked to several problems in the offspring, including fear and a reduced ability to cope with stress. Although the research on this has not looked at dogs, there is no reason to think dogs would be different from other species.

Early Life Experiences 

 Adverse experiences in early life can have a profound impact later on. McMillan says stress during the first few weeks of life can have long-term effects, including stress during the neonatal period (up to 12 days). Although much of this research is on other species (including humans), there are some studies on dogs, including Scott and Fuller’s classic work.

The Socialization Period 

The sensitive period for socialization starts at 3 weeks and continues until about 12 weeks of age (some sources say 16 weeks).

During the sensitive period, puppies should have happy, positive experiences with anything they might encounter later in life. For example, all kinds of people, children, other dogs, cats, horses, other animals, different kinds of sounds from dishwashers to vacuums to loud noises (N.B. at a level they are comfortable with – never terrify a puppy). If you think about all the things a dog might encounter, it’s a long list.

If a puppy is in a commercial breeding establishment or pet store, they obviously have a limited environment that is very different from a home. For example, McMilllan says lack of physical contact with the puppy’s mum and fellow puppies, as well as with humans, could be responsible for the finding that puppies from pet stores are more likely to be sensitive to being touched.

Weaning and being separated from mom 

Puppies in CBEs are suddenly taken away from their mother, instead of a gradual weaning process. McMillan says this separation is stressful in itself, may affect the puppy’s ability to cope with other stresses, and also removes the puppy from an environment in which a lot of early learning takes place. For example, play with other puppies teaches bite inhibition and how to interact with other dogs.

Transport and being in the pet store 

Being transported from the CBE, either to a pet store or direct to the person who is buying the puppy, is probably also stressful. Being in a pet store may be a frightening experience for a puppy, including handling by staff and the presence of lots of unfamiliar people and other animals. If the puppy does not sell quickly and spends a long time there, this may make things worse.

The importance of education 

Finally, McMillan points out there are no standards for the information given to puppy buyers. A responsible breeder will want to educate prospective owners on how to care for their puppy, whereas pet store staff may not have the knowledge or experience to do this. A couple of studies have found educating people on how to care for their new pet makes a difference to behaviour in the longer term, so this may be another factor that disadvantages puppies from pet stores.

McMillan does not look at the possibility that people who get puppies from responsible breeders may be more knowledgeable about dogs and canine behaviour. He acknowledges lack of information about differences between homes is a possible limitation of the paper. It’s worth noting that one of the studies included in his review (Pirrone et al 2016) did not find any effect of owner factors, but more research is needed.

Summary 

In sum, this paper finds research consistently reports puppies from pet stores / CBEs have more behaviour problems as adult dogs, particularly in the form of aggression.

Since the studies are correlational, they do not prove causation. However, the many additional stressors pet store puppies face provide a plausible explanation for the development of problem behaviours.

What this means to you 

Of course, some readers will right now have a dog on their settee who originally came from a commercial breeding establishment. If so, hopefully it has worked out well; remember these studies only show an increased risk, so problematic outcomes are not guaranteed. In addition, even when dogs do have issues as a result, as with dogs that were previously used for breeding, they can still be loving pets. If you need help with a behaviour problem, seek help from a qualified dog trainer.

Obviously, it's best to get puppies from a responsible breeder, or from a shelter that looks after the puppies in a foster home.

Common advice on how to choose a puppy includes that you see the puppy suckling from the mom. One study not included in this review found it’s better if people see both the mum and dad before purchasing a puppy (Westgarth, Reevell and Barclay 2012). If people had not seen either parent prior to purchase, the adult dog was 3.8 times more likely to have been referred for a behaviour problem.

Puppies sold over the internet typically come from CBEs. One warning sign is if the seller agrees to meet you in a convenient location such as a parking lot, rather than letting you go to see the puppy in their home.

Incidentally, older advice used to be just to see the mom, but a BBC documentary in the UK found some puppy sellers get round this by borrowing a female dog of the same breed to be a fake mom. More recent advice includes seeing the puppies actually suckling from the mom, so unscrupulous breeders can’t get away with saying mom is resting in the other room.

This shows just how difficult it can be for people to know if they are avoiding a puppy from a mill or not. If you’re getting a puppy, check the advice in your area in order to be up-to-date on what to look for, and remember that shelters also sometimes have puppies.

It’s possible the exact length of the socialization period varies with breed (Morrow et al 2015), making the puppies early weeks even more important.

Whenever you get a puppy, remember to ask “What are you doing to socialize the puppy?” If you don’t get a good answer, keep looking. And then ensure your puppy has lots of lovely, happy experiences with anything they might meet later in life.

You might find my posts on how to choose a puppy and why you need to socialize your puppy useful.

This paper shows how important it is both to reduce stress for puppies (and their moms), and to ensure good socialization experiences.

Learning More 

McMillan’s paper is open access so you can read it in full.

If you want to know more about the importance of socialization and the problems of stress during puppy development, I recommend chapter 5 in John Bradshaw’s book Dog Sense (which happens to be the Companion Animal Psychology Book Club choice for this month), and chapter 6 in James Serpell’s edited volume The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behavior and Interactions with People (2nd edition).

If you are interested in the effects of stress in early life on people, you might like Bruce Perry's book, The Boy Who Was Raised as a Dog.

I have previously covered several of the studies included in McMillan’s review (including this one, and this survey on aggression in dogs). You might also like my posts on why people choose certain dogs and the role of emotions in people's choice of four small dog breeds. Stay up to date and subscribe to Companion Animal Psychology.



References 
McMillan, F. D. (2017). Behavioral and psychological outcomes for dogs sold as puppies through pet stores and/or born in commercial breeding establishments: Current knowledge and putative causes. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research.
Morrow, M., Ottobre, J., Ottobre, A., Neville, P., St-Pierre, N., Dreschel, N., & Pate, J. L. (2015). Breed-dependent differences in the onset of fear-related avoidance behavior in puppies. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 10(4), 286-294.
Pirrone, F., Pierantoni, L., Pastorino, G. Q., & Albertini, M. (2016). Owner-reported aggressive behavior towards familiar people may be a more prominent occurrence in pet shop-traded dogs. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 11, 13-17.
Westgarth, C., Reevell, K., & Barclay, R. (2012). Association between prospective owner viewing of the parents of a puppy and later referral for behavioural problems. Veterinary Record-English Edition, 170(20), 517.

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.

Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

People Mistakenly Think Anxious Dogs Are Relaxed Around Baby

babies children dogs research science

People Mistakenly Think Anxious Dogs Are Relaxed Around Baby

Comment  

Dog owners are even worse than non-dog owners at interpreting canine body language in interactions with children, according to research.

Young children, in particular, are at risk of getting bitten by dogs. According to the AVMA, between 2010 and 2012 359,223 children in the US were bitten by dogs. Younger children are most often bitten in the home by a dog they live with (Reisner et al 2011). To prevent dog bites, it's best not to let a child approach a dog that is lying down or sitting still, and to closely supervise all interactions between children and dogs. But what if people don't know what to look for?

A recent study by Dr. Yasemin Salgirli Demirbas (Ankara University) et al asked people to observe three videos of interactions between a young child and a medium or large dog.

In one video, a baby crawls towards a Dalmatian who is lying down next to a ball; in another, a toddler walks around and touches a Doberman; and finally, a Boxer follows and licks the face of a crawling baby.

In all three cases, the interactions were risky, as the dogs were obviously showing anxious or fearful body language.

But that’s not how most people rated the dogs. Most people said the dogs were relaxed (68%) and confident (65%).

It made no difference whether or not people had children, but there were differences between the people who owned dogs and those who did not. Far from being better at reading dog body language, the dog owners were more likely to say the dog was relaxed, and it was the non-dog owners who were more likely to recognize the dog had an anxious emotional state.

The authors suggest several possible reasons for this, including that dog owners may be more likely to assume a dog is friendly, non-dog owners may be more cautious and dog owners more confident in their assessments, or dog owners may have less knowledge about aggression in dogs in this context.

The study also found that people (dog owners or not) tend to give overall assessments of the dog’s emotional state, rather than pointing to particular aspects of body language. They gave examples such as “the dog is happy” or “the dog knows that it is just a small child.” This kind of overall assessment was more common in people without children.

Every participant referred to tail wagging as a sign of positive emotions. This is worrying because in fact only some tail wags are a sign of happiness. Tail position and wagging speed, breadth and direction can all vary. Look for a lovely wide wag with a nice loose body in a happy dog; a narrow, rapid wag with the tail held high is a sign of a threat.

Other behaviours people often commented on were moving the ears back (recognized more by dog owners) and avoiding eye contact.

Photo: debasige; top, brickrena. Both Shutterstock.

The researchers say that even when people were able to recognize the dog’s emotional state, this would not necessarily have been enough to prevent a dog bite. People were still likely to describe the interactions between dog and child as playful or friendly.

The authors say, “This finding shows the importance of bite prevention programs aimed at teaching both the correct description of canine body language and the early signals of aggression, to equip adults with the necessary knowledge to safely supervise child–dog interactions”

The online survey had 71 participants and took place in Turkey. The small size of the survey is a drawback, but the findings suggest more research into how people interpret (or fail to interpret) interactions between dogs and children would be very helpful. Sometimes social media seems to be full of videos of very risky interactions followed by many comments describing them as cute.

And that’s one of the nice things about this study: the dogs in the videos did not show more obvious signs such as growls or air snaps that more people would have easily recognized. Instead they showed the more subtle signs dogs give that they are uncomfortable, such as lip licking, looking away, or moving away from the child.

While it’s not a surprise that most people did not recognize these signs, it is alarming, and shows more needs to be done to educate people about canine body language and safety around dogs.

This is not the only study to find people tend to assume safety around dogs. Westgarth and Watkins (2015) found a belief that dog bites “won’t happen to me.” But especially where children are concerned, we need to be aware that any dog can bite, and learn how to recognize signs of stress, anxiety and fear in dogs.

You will find some useful resources at stopthe77.com. Reisner Veterinary Behaviour Services often provides educational deconstructions of dog bite incidents on Facebook and is on my list of the pet people to follow in 2017.

If you like this post, why not subscribe to Companion Animal Psychology.

You might also like: Educating children reduces risky behaviour around dogs.



Reference
Demirbas, Y. S., Ozturk, H., Emre, B., Kockaya, M., Ozvardar, T., & Scott, A. (2016). Adults’ Ability to Interpret Canine Body Language during a Dog–Child Interaction. Anthrozoös, 29(4), 581-596. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08927936.2016.1228750

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.
Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

It's Not Just Catnip: Olfactory Enrichment for Cats

cats enrichment research science

It's Not Just Catnip: Olfactory Enrichment for Cats

Comment  

The olfactory enrichment cats love but you’ve (probably) never heard of.

A new study tests domestic cats with four different types of olfactory enrichment: catnip, silver vine, Tatarian honeysuckle and valerian. Tigers and bobcats were also tested. The results show almost all domestic cats love at least one of these.

These compounds are safe and not addictive, meaning owners have an easy way to provide enrichment to their cats (provided they can get hold of them).

First author, Dr. Sebastiaan Bol told me in an email,

“This research gave us insight in how many cats in the USA go crazy for catnip and plants that can have a similar effect on cats. Catnip was loved by many, but so was silver vine, a plant that is very popular in Japan, stinky valerian root and the wood of Tatarian honeysuckle. Sadly, about 1 out of every 3 cats doesn't like catnip. It's not a choice; it's genetically determined. The good news is that this study demonstrates that most of these cats WILL LOVE one or more of the other, SAFE, plant materials that were just mentioned.  

“These plant materials are a lot of fun for your cat at home, but they may also be helpful when socializing scared cats, for trap-neuter-return programs, training (e.g. redirecting scratching behavior) and possibly even for reducing stress during for example medical procedures (e.g. giving a pill), transportation and (medical) boarding. So much research that needs to be done!  

“The results from our small survey learned us that most veterinarians in the USA, including ones specialized in cats, do not know about the existence and effects on cats of these plants. This is why we love to reach out to people who care about the well-being of cats.  

“Finally, also for cats who DO like catnip, it can be super exciting to receive something new that they may like. If you enjoy drinking a glass of red wine, that doesn't mean you won't like a glass of champagne, does it? It probably depends on the moment. It's the same for cats. The best thing about being a cat in this particular case is that you don't have to worry about becoming an alcoholic or getting a hangover; all these plant materials come without any known negative side effects.” 

So whether or not your cat likes catnip, it’s worth giving these a try.

Zappa loving a silver vine wood stick. Photo: Sebastiaan Bol.

Sebastiaan Bol says his cats love silver vine, as you can see from the photo of Zappa enjoying her silver vine stick.

"Pretty much every day I see how much two of our six cats love the silver vine wood sticks. Multiple wood sticks are available to them all the time, but they really seem to pick their moment. It's adorable to watch and it makes me so happy to see them enjoy it so much."

The study tested 100 domestic cats with all four of these compounds. The cats were mostly moggies and they included cats at a sanctuary, waiting for adoption at a rehoming centre, at a cat-friendly veterinary practice and cats in their own homes. Five of the cats were adopted before completing the study, so the final sample was 95 cats.

The compounds were presented in two ways: in a sock, or on a piece of carpet. If the cat did not notice the arrival of the compound, it was moved one time to see if it would attract their attention, but cats were not chased with the items – it was up to them whether to interact with it or not. An empty sock was used as a control, but the person coding the responses did know which substance it was.

You have probably seen the classic kitty response to catnip, which includes licking, sniffing, drooling, rubbing the head or chin on the catnip, rolling, and raking (bunny-kicking the back legs). But not all cats respond to catnip, and this study found that about a third of cats did not respond to it.

Silver vine was a favourite, with 80% of the cats responding to silver vine. About half of the cats responded to valerian, and half to Tatarian honeysuckle. In fact, only six of the cats did not respond to any of the smells.

Reproduced from Bol et al (2017) under Creative Commons licence CC4.0

Young and old cats were equally likely to respond. The scientists also found similar responses in cats considered friendly, shy, or somewhere in between. This suggests that this olfactory enrichment is suitable for all cats.

The study was conducted because there are anecdotal reports of cats responding to these substances (and to a fifth one, Indian nettle root, that was not tested). In Japan, silver vine is popular for cats and is known as matatabi. However, the scientists asked 38 vets and 6 vet techs who specialize in cats if they knew about this, and almost all said no. So you can be forgiven for not knowing about it too.

The chemical which causes the effect in catnip is called nepetalactone. Silver vine contains six compounds that are similar, and one is also found in valerian.

Silver vine is available in different forms, including wood sticks, powder, normal fruit, and fruit galls (where midge larvae have matured). The scientists found cats were more responsive to the fruit galls than the normal fruit. Unfortunately this makes it more difficult to commercially prepare silver vine on a large scale, since not very much is known about the silver vine gall midge and it also requires another plant as part of its life cycle. If you are looking to try it with your cat, the powder (which is the powder of the silver vine fruit galls) is probably the best place to start.

Tatarian honeysuckle is available as sticks or as blocks of wood. It will last forever, although you may need to wash it from time to time (after your cat has drooled on it a lot). If your cat stops responding to it, you can shave a bit of wood off to give it a fresh edge again.

Valerian root is available in some cat toys.

Catnip, of course, is available as plants for your garden, as a dried herb (including with additional scents), and in many different cat toys.

The scientists tested catnip and silver vine on nine tigers at Big Cat Rescue, where keepers gave it to the animals. One tiger had a little interest in catnip, but the others were not interested. Four tigers were not interested in silver vine – and five of them took an active dislike to it. So it does not make good enrichment for tigers.

They also tested bobcats. Four bobcats responded to silver vine, and one to catnip, and their response was similar to that of the domestic cats. If you take a look at the paper (which is open access), you can see a photo of a bobcat rubbing her chin and cheeks on a paper bag that contains silver vine.

The video below, which was made several years ago, shows some of the cats at Big Cat Rescue responding to catnip.



A chemical analysis of all four substances shows the concentration of the chemical compounds which cats are probably responding to.

All four of these substances cause euphoria in at least some cats, with most cats responding to silver vine. So it is worth trying them out to see if they make your cat happy too.

The scientists conclude that “Olfactory enrichment using silver vine, Tatarian honeysuckle or valerian root may, similar to catnip, be an effective means to improve the quality of life for cats. Nearly all cats responded positively to at least one of these plants.”

The paper is open access, and you can follow the first author on twitter and Facebook.

Have you tried any of these alternatives to catnip with your cat?

More cat stories: Enrichment tips for cats (that many people miss) and what kind of scratching post do cats prefer?



Reference
Bol, S., Caspers, J., Buckingham, L., Anderson-Shelton, G. D., Ridgway, C., Buffington, C. T., ... & Bunnik, E. M. (2017). Responsiveness of cats (Felidae) to silver vine (Actinidia polygama), Tatarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica), valerian (Valeriana officinalis) and catnip (Nepeta cataria). BMC Veterinary Research, 13(1), 70.  Open access here.
Photos: HHelene (top) and itakephotos4u (Shutterstock.com). Photo of Zappa, Sebastiaan Bol.

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.
Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

New Literature Review Recommends Reward-Based Training

dog training dogs research review science

New Literature Review Recommends Reward-Based Training

Comment  

A review of 17 papers concludes that reward-based dog training has fewer risks and may even work better than aversive methods.

The review, by Dr. Gal Ziv (The Zinman College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences) looks at the scientific literature on dog training methods. Seventeen studies were identified that include surveys of dog owners, intervention studies, and reports from veterinarians.

The paper identifies some methodological issues with the literature, but the conclusion is that people should use reward-based methods to train their dogs.

Ziv writes,

“Despite the methodological concerns, it appears that aversive training methods have undesirable unintended outcomes and that using them puts dogs’ welfare at risk. In addition, there is no evidence to suggest that aversive training methods are more effective than reward-based training methods. At least 3 studies in this review suggest that the opposite might be true in both pets and working dogs. Because this appears to be the case, it is recommended that the dog training community embrace reward-based training and avoid, as much as possible, training methods that include aversion.”

Ziv also writes,

“it is perhaps time to pursue a different focus and approach of research. This new line of research will examine how humane, reward-based methods can be improved to facilitate better communication between humans and dogs.”

The review considers four different areas of research, starting with comparisons. Five surveys that compare different training methods found that people who use aversive techniques (positive punishment and negative reinforcement) report more behaviour problems including fear and aggression. One of these studies found that inconsistent use of different methods was linked to aggression. Although these studies rely on owner reports, three other studies that directly observed dogs also found that canine welfare and behaviour may be affected by the use of aversive techniques.

These studies are correlational and do not prove causation. However, although experimental research might be warranted, Ziv notes there are ethical issues that would need to be considered, given these findings.

The second area Ziv looked at was the effects on dog-dog aggression. Here, there was only one study, a questionnaire which found dogs who are trained by being hit or shaken are more likely to be the perpetrator in aggressive dog-dog interactions, whereas dogs whose owners think training should be fun, or who shouted and gave clear commands, were more likely to be victims. This study is a little hard to interpret.

The third section looks at shock collars, electronic containment systems and bark collars. Studies here include surveys, observations and an experiment. Although there are some methodological issues, including with the interpretation of cortisol levels, the results suggest that electronic shock collars, containment systems and bark collars may be painful and/or frightening for dogs. Ziv notes that even when trainers are experienced at using shock collars, dogs may come to associate the shock with their trainer or handler due to classical conditioning. As well as having detrimental effects on welfare, this may also affect performance.

The fourth section considers the effects of aversive training techniques on a dog’s physical health. Ziv notes that most studies so far look at acute stress, i.e. at the time of the dog training session, and more research is needed to investigate whether aversive training techniques are linked to chronic stress, which can affect physical health. Two case studies showed negative effects of specific techniques, one being a case in which a dog had to be euthanized after being hung by a choke collar for 60 seconds.

Ziv says there are likely more such cases that are not recorded in the literature, and encourages veterinarians to write them up. I think there may well be a file drawer effect here, in that once it is known this is possible, future case studies are probably less likely to be published. Ziv also says that hanging dogs from collars should be made illegal.

Ziv recommends the use of LIMA (Least Invasive Minimally Aversive) techniques, but he also notes that competence may be an issue here. Given the importance of timing, consistency and other competence issues, he recommends regulation.  He writes, “Handlers’ competence should be defined, regulated, and assessed by relevant regulating agencies based on the recommendations of accredited and experienced animal behaviorists.”

The paper makes many useful recommendations for future research, and I would particularly like to see more research on how to improve the teaching of reward-based training methods.

The implications for dog owners and professionals are that aversive techniques (positive punishment and negative reinforcement) should not be used to train dogs because of the risks to animal welfare. Most professional organizations already recommend the use of reward-based dog training methods because of this risk.

Many (although not all) of the studies referenced by Ziv have been previously covered on Companion Animal Psychology. You will find a list of research on dog training methods and articles about those studies by a range of writers on my dog training research resources page, which has everything you need to satisfy your inner dog training geek.

You may also like my user-friendly guides to using positive reinforcement in dog training, and how to choose a dog trainer.


Reference
Ziv, G. (2017) The effects of using aversive training methods in dogs – a review. Journal of Veterinary Behaviour, 19:50-60.
Photos: Duncan Andison (top) and studiolaska (both Shutterstock.com).

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.
Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

Video helps the shelter dog (more than photos)

dogs photos research science shelter video

Video helps the shelter dog (more than photos)

Comment  

Adoptable dogs seen in video get more positive ratings than those seen in photos, according to new research

A new study by Chloe Pyzer et al (Hartpury College) compared people’s perceptions of adoptable dogs when they were shown video or still photographs. The results showed that video is the best way to show people adoptable dogs.

Dr. Tamara Montrose, one of the study authors, told me in an email,

“In our study, we found that viewing dogs in videos as opposed to photographs tended to result in more positive perceptions of the dogs’ behavioural traits. Dogs viewed by videos were considered to be more trainable, intelligent, friendly, and gentle and less dominant, aggressive, and unsociable. The positive effects of viewing dogs in videos was seen for both dogs of more desirable breeds and for dogs of less desirable and frequently stigmatised breeds.  

These findings are not only of academic interest but have clear applications for rehoming shelters. Many rehoming shelters use photographs, videos or a mixture of the two media types when advertising their animals for adoption. One factor that may deter some shelter workers from making videos of their animals is the extra time this necessitates, when the benefits of this approach is unclear.  

 The findings of our study suggest that the extra time spent making a video may be beneficial in better promoting dogs to the public, and that greater use of video by rehoming shelters may provide an effective method for promoting adoption of both desired, and more stigmatised breeds.” 

735 people completed a questionnaire which featured four dogs from an animal re-homing centre in the UK.

Two Staffordshire Bull Terriers, an 11 year old male and a 3 year old female, were chosen to represent a breed that is widely seen as less desirable. Breed specific legislation in the UK bans ‘pit bull types’ and sometimes people perceive Staffordshire Bull Terriers as being similar. Two other dogs were chosen to represent breeds that are seen as desirable: a Cavalier King Charles Spaniel-Chihuahua cross and a Toy Poodle, both of whom are female and 5 years old.

In the still photographs, each dog is shown sitting, wearing their dog walking equipment so that the equipment was the same in both video and photos. The videos for each dog show 30 seconds of the dog walking on leash and interacting with the dog walker.

People rated the dogs on six positive and six negative traits. Each person saw photographs of two dogs (one deemed a desirable breed and one deemed not so) and video of the two other dogs.

Regardless of whether the dog was seen as a desirable breed or not, they were given more positive ratings based on video clips rather than a still photograph.

All of the dogs had better ratings (higher or lower as appropriate) on the video clips for the qualities of being trainable, friendly, gentle, intelligent, dominant, aggressive and unsociable. Although there was variation for individual dogs with some of the other qualities, it was still the case that most dogs got better ratings for being playful and obedient based on the video.

Although these results did not look at adoption rates, earlier research has shown that dogs that are seen as friendly to children, dogs and other pets have higher adoption rates. So if video leads to dogs being perceived in a more positive light, it seems worth the time for animal shelters to put together videos, at least for some of their animals. Future research can use a larger number of dogs and investigate if it actually leads to shorter waits for adoption.

Earlier research has also shown that great photos make a difference to the speed at which dogs are adopted. There is plenty of scope for future studies to investigate the best features of photo and video to use and whether or not including people makes a difference.

Of course, the scientists point out that as well as showing dogs in a positive light, videos need to be realistic so that people get a fair idea of the dog they would be adopting. This will help to keep return rates low.

It’s especially interesting that positive results were found for video of both desirable and less desirable breeds.

When you are looking at adoptable dogs, do you feel that you get more information from video than photos?

You might also like: Large study finds no evidence for ‘black dog syndrome’, shelter dogs live up to expectations (mostly), and proof the internet helps cat adoptions.

Reference
Pyzer, C, Clarke, L and Montrose, VT (2016) Effects of video footage vs photographs on perception of dog behavioural traits. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 20(1) 42-51. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2016.1229186
Photos: Melounix (top) and Krumina Studios (both Shutterstock.com).

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.
Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.