The benefits of pets for children

children pets research science

The benefits of pets for children

Comment  

A review of the literature concludes that pets may have psychological benefits for children – such as better self-esteem – but more research is needed.

The review, by Rebecca Purewal (University of Liverpool) et al involved searching the scientific literature from 1960 to 2016 for studies that examine the effects of pets on children’s psychological health. 22 studies were identified and analysed further.

The results show benefits in some areas, but not enough evidence to draw conclusions in other areas. The paper also considers the potential mechanisms for such effects.

The scientists write,

“This paper provides a review of the evidence on the effects of pet ownership on emotional, behavioural, cognitive, educational and social development. Overall, the evidence suggests that pet ownership, and dog ownership in particular, may benefit these outcomes for children and adolescents. However, the evidence is mixed partly due to a broad range of different methodological approaches and varying quality of studies.”

The scientists used quite broad criteria in selecting the studies for their review. The 22 studies they looked at include two that have been covered on Companion Animal Psychology: Geerdts et al on pets and children’s understanding of biological concepts, and Rhoades et al on the effects of pets on the mental health of homeless youth.

First, the good news. Purewal et al found evidence that pets may be good for children’s emotional health, especially in terms of better self-esteem and reduced loneliness. There also seemed to be benefits in terms of being better able to take another person’s perspective, and for intellectual development.

They also found social benefits – bigger social networks, better social competence, and more social play. (Interestingly, pets have also been found to increase social networks for adults).

However, they did not really find evidence for improvements in depression and anxiety, and there was not enough evidence to come to any conclusions about behaviour development.

The paper describes several potential mechanisms by which pets might benefit children. The effects of the hormone oxytocin may lead to reduced stress, and pets may provide social support. Pets may help to meet children’s needs for a secure attachment, and this could be especially important in cases where a child has poor attachment to their parents. Indeed, it is possible that attachment to pets may be more important than simply owning a pet.

The authors provide illustrations of how effects might occur for each of the domains where an effect was found. For example, improved educational outcomes may be due to better social support and reduced stress, which in turn may cause better executive functioning which will improve learning. Interactions with the pet (such as having conversations with the pet) may also lead to better language skills and social cognition.

Potential benefits of pets may also be related to the stage of a child’s development. For example, young children who are learning about social relationships may especially benefit from interactions with a pet. For self-esteem, it seems that pet ownership is of most benefit to younger children (under 6) and those over 10 years old.

The review highlights a number of problems with the available evidence, such as small sample sizes,  only collecting data at one time-point (therefore not able to assess potential effects over time), and sometimes classifying children as non-pet owners at a particular time when they may have previously had a pet that is now deceased.

Also, there are differences in the kinds of pets studied, and although it appears that dogs had the greatest potential, in some cases other pets (that were not dogs or cats) were not included as pets in the research. So more research is needed to understand the relationship children have with different kinds of pets, and whether this means some pets are more likely to be beneficial than others.

The authors also highlight potential confounding variables. For example, there might be differences in the kind of parent who acquires a pet compared to those who don’t, and it’s possible this could account for some of the effects.

As well as summarizing the literature, the article highlights the need for better quality evidence on the possible benefits of pets. While the potential risks of pets are outside the scope of the paper, they are mentioned. The most obvious might be the risk of dog bites, which young children are especially vulnerable to, but there are also risks of allergies, acquiring an infection from a pet, and of grief on the loss of pet.

That's why it's so helpful to know that research finds dogs and cats may benefit children in some aspects, such as improved self-esteem and bigger social networks. The review highlights priorities for future research, and shows that improving the quality of research in this field is essential. Hopefully it will be a catalyst for better-designed and longitudinal studies in this area.

The paper is open access so you can read it in full. You can also follow one of the authors of the study, Dr. Carri Westgarth, on twitter.

How do you think pets might help children?

You might also like: Reading to dogs may improve literacy and what pets do children have and which do they prefer?

You may also read this post in Chinese, courtesy of our friends at Bambiland Pet Photography and Dog Training.



Reference
Purewal, R., Christley, R., Kordas, K., Joinson, C., Meints, K., Gee, N., & Westgarth, C. (2017). Companion Animals and Child/Adolescent Development: A Systematic Review of the Evidence International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14 (3) DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14030234
Photos: Africa Studio (top) and zagorodnaya (both Shutterstock.com).

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.
Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

Dearly Departed Dogs

dogs grief pet loss research science

Dearly Departed Dogs

Comment  

Do online pet obituaries reveal how we truly feel about our pets?
Guest post by Jane Gething-Lewis (Hartpury College).

“You were such a selfless and giving boy. Dad loves you with all his heart.”

A heartfelt online tribute to a dearly departed loved one – but this loved one had four legs, a tail and was called Cosmo. Over the top? Not necessarily. Research suggests that many people feel the loss of a beloved pet as keenly as the loss of a child.

The bond people have with each other has long been debated and discussed. Generations of psychologists have attempted to explain and quantify the mechanics of attachment (or lack of) between fellow humans. But is it possible that we form similar bonds with our animal companions? Recently, researchers have been interested in exploring whether human theories of bonding apply to our relationships with our pets. No easy task, when only half of the bonding equation can talk.

Now researchers at the University of Edinburgh believe they have identified a useful source of information about the nature of the human-animal bond – online pet obituaries.

“The digital environment is a really interesting place for people to talk about animals,” said Dr Jill MacKay, who led a study of tributes posted on pet memorial websites. “Society has an expectation that animals are not as important as humans, but the online space has no rules. I suspect that people write more freely and honestly online about what they’re really feeling.”

Dr MacKay and her team looked at obituaries for dogs on two dedicated websites, investigating the kind of information available in these tributes. They also assessed whether that data might prove useful in future studies into the nature of the human-animal bond when it comes to attachment, grief and bereavement.

Pulling a sickie? Or sick with grief...

Taking time off work following the death of a pet is generally frowned upon, and yet losing a pet can seriously disrupt our lives. Some people lose sleep, lose their appetite and are unable to carry on with normal life for some time; the higher the level of bonding with their pet, the deeper the mourning.

 “Our study shows that people feel real grief when they lose their animals,” said Dr MacKay.

Why do we feel so close to our pets?

Here’s the science bit. The Attachment Theory of human bonding is a widely used psychological model, coined by psychologist John Bowlby in the 1950’s. It works on the principal that a strong emotional attachment to a primary caregiver (usually a parent) is essential for making us feel safe, secure and grounded. Put simply, we will form a deep bond with another person if one or more of four key elements are present in the relationship. Do you want to be near to someone you feel close to? That’s Proximity Maintenance. Do you seek out that person when you need comfort or are a bit scared? They are a Safe Haven. Do like to know that person is nearby when you’re chatting to others at a party? They are your Secure Base. Do you panic a little when you think that person has left the party without you? That’s called Separation Anxiety. Congratulations – you are attached. The degree and the style to which we bond with other people will differ from person to person, and will affect the way we cope with life’s ups and downs – including the way we feel grief.

In her 2011 paper, Not Just a Dog, Dr Marilyn Kwong, a psychologist at the Simon Fraser University in Canada, looked at whether human attachment theory may explain why some people are so deeply affected by pet bereavement. The study built on existing research, which has established that intense bonds with our pets do exist; pets are often considered to be family members, and can fulfill emotional needs like love and companionship.

Dr Kwong looked at grief experienced by 25 people with disabilities who had lost their Assistance Animal. Assistance animals included Guide Dogs and dogs specially trained to help with physical tasks. The team analysed the transcripts of open-ended phone interviews. They looked for – and found - evidence of three of the four attachment theory components: safe haven, secure base and separation anxiety. All participants reported feeling intense grief, even when the bereavement may have occurred many years previously. The team concluded that grief following the loss of a well-loved pet can be as strong as losing a human loved-one. “She was always there for me,” said one participant. Another even took her dog into the operating theatre because she couldn’t bear to be separated from him. Of course, all the dogs in Dr Kwong’s study were not purely pets; they had a working function as caregiver. Therefore separation from them would likely generate additional anxiety above and beyond ‘normal’ levels.

Deciphering the dead

Phone interviews and questionnaires can provide a robust set of results for formal studies, but they depend on the researchers’ personal interaction with the mourner, who may not feel able to be frank about their true feelings. Could online memorials offer a more unadulterated source of information?

Dr Jill Mackay identified two websites, HeavenlyPaws.com and ImmortalPets.com. Focusing on dogs, she selected 130 obituaries of up to 400 words in length. The researchers identified and agreed a number of key concepts present in the texts relating to attachment theory and relationship with the pet. They grouped these concepts under three categories: owner-pet relationship, pet’s actions, and owner’s feelings.

Where it was possible to identify the gender of the writer, Dr MacKay found that the majority of female memorial authors (34.6%) considered themselves to be ‘mum’ to their dearly departed dog. Tributes were also found from male parental figures, ‘dad’ (7.7%), and from children (5.4%).

Nearly half (49%) of the tribute writers referred to their dog as part of the family – “my baby”, “mummy’s darling”. The researchers identified this category as a potential predictor for the depth of grief experienced by the human owner. A little over half (51%) discussed the afterlife in relation to their pets, who were “in heaven”, or “over the rainbow bridge”. There was a strong association between the two concepts of afterlife and being part of the family, supporting attachment theory understanding that the loss of a pet can be akin for some to the loss of a child. If you’re feeling a little depressed by now – there was some light at the end of the (white, brightly lit) tunnel. 11% of the dog obituaries celebrated happy times, writing of their pet’s sense of humour and gratitude, ‘laughing’ at its own farts and ‘grateful’ for a play in the park.

In contrast to Dr Kwong’s study of bereaved Assistant Dog owners, Dr McKay’s investigation does seem to have disinterred a rich source of natural information about the human-animal bond: genuine expressions of love and loss, expressed on a public forum, garnered from real-world texts and not under experimental conditions. However, scientists might see this as a problem. Little is known about the demographics of the tribute writer, making it difficult to breakdown the information as a potential predictor for people more likely to feel the deepest and most debilitating grief. Neither does this plundering-of-the-online-grave study relate directly to specific elements of the formal attachment theory model.

RIP online

The internet has become the go-to place for information, support and emotional expression around grief and bereavement. Mainstream animal charities like Blue Cross, veterinary practices, rescue centres, and even universities like Glasgow offer bereavement advice, steering the mourner to create an online memorial to their pet.

While Dr MacKay’s study focuses solely on dedicated pet obituary websites, she plans to broaden her investigations into the world of social media:  Facebook, Twitter and Instagram teem with emotion.

“We looked at dedicated pet obituary websites rather than social media because of ethical issues,” explained Dr MacKay. “Pet obit sites are public, but facebook is personal.  There are layers of privacy settings. However,” she adds, “this would be a really interesting area to look at further because the way we express ourselves online is evolving rapidly.”

Good grief – how can we use this information?

For scientists, Jill MacKay has identified a seam of easy accessible material readily available for studying the human animal bond around grief, mourning and attachment. She has also identified social media as another potential area for further academic study.

In the real world, the knowledge gained by researchers like Jill MacKay and Marilyn Kwong could help us support and understand people who are grieving their pets. Information gleaned from online pet obituaries may be a useful tool in developing educational materials to help bereavement counsellors. Veterinary practices could be better able to identify people more likely to experience more profound grief, and refer them to support. Social workers who work with families, older, and isolated people might better understand the impact of pet loss, and employers, who still roll their eyes, may be a little more sympathetic.

And was Jill MacKay inspired by her own study? ”Just after I finished this project, I had to have my 18-year-old cat Posie euthanised. I did a memorial for her and put it up on facebook.”

RIP Cosmo. Your dad loved you. He really did.


About Jane Gething-Lewis:

Jane is a post-graduate student at Hartpury University Centre in Gloucestershire, where she is studying part-time for an MRes in Anthrozoology. Jane has recently returned to education, and balances her studies with her role as a producer for BBC local radio. She is an experienced writer and broadcaster, and has written for many national publications, including BBC Countryfile Magazine, Country Living and Woman. (Jane lives in the Forest of Dean and is mum to one female human and two unruly dogs!)






References
Kwong, M., & Bartholomew, K. (2011). “Not just a dog”: an attachment perspective on relationships with assistance dogs Attachment & Human Development, 13 (5), 421-436 DOI: 10.1080/14616734.2011.584410
MacKay, J., Moore, J., & Huntingford, F. (2016). Characterizing the Data in Online Companion-dog Obituaries to Assess Their Usefulness as a Source of Information about Human–Animal Bonds Anthrozoös, 29 (3), 431-440 DOI: 10.1080/08927936.2016.1181374
Photos: Reddogs (top) and Supie Davis (both Shutterstock.com)
Propose a guest post to Companion Animal Psychology.

What kind of scratching post do cats prefer?

cats research science scratching

What kind of scratching post do cats prefer?

Comment  

It’s important to provide cats with the right kind of scratching post – and reward them for using it.

Inappropriate scratching is a fairly common complaint about cats. That’s inappropriate from the owner’s perspective, because from the cat’s point of view they are just doing what comes naturally. Research by Colleen Wilson DVM et al tells us what kind of scratching post to provide in order to keep both cat and owner happy.

Cats scratch in order to mark their territory. It leaves a visual signal to other cats, as well as scent from glands in their paws. Scratching may also help them look after their claws, since it can remove old claw sheaths. Cats stretch out their claws and front legs when they scratch. Cats like to scratch repeatedly in the same place, and if the place they choose is your furniture, that’s not so good for the furniture.

Earlier research found that cats will use scratching posts if they are provided but did not look at the type of posts cats prefer. The new study suggests that both the types of scratching post and the use of positive reinforcement are important ways to prevent cats from scratching your furniture.

The scientists conclude,

“The ideal scratching post to recommend to a cat owner to help prevent inappropriate scratching is one that includes rope as a substrate, is upright vertical, 3 ft or higher, has two or more levels and a base width of between 1 and 3 ft.” 

The internet survey of 4105 cat owners asked people about the kind of scratching posts they provide, which one their cat prefers, and whether or not their cat scratches inappropriately. The most commonly provided posts were not the same as the kind of posts that were linked to lower levels of inappropriate scratching, suggesting many owners are not providing the right kind of post for their cat.

83% of people provided more than one scratching post, and 89% said their cats used a scratching post at least once a day. Indoor cats were more likely to use a scratching post – but no more likely than cats allowed outdoors to scratch inappropriately.

61% of owners provided a carpet scratching post, 58% provided rope (sisal), 42% cardboard, 15% wood, and 4% other (the numbers do not add up to 100% because many people provided more than one type of post).

Owners said their cats preferred to use a rope scratching post. There was an age difference with older cats (10 years or more) being reported as preferring carpet.

Cats were equally reported to like a simple vertical post and a cat tree with two or more levels. Again there was an age difference, with cats 9 years or younger said to prefer a cat tree with two or more levels, followed by a vertical post; while cats 10 years or older were said to prefer a vertical post more. This may reflect age differences in agility or health.

Just over half of the owners (52%) said their cats scratched inappropriately. Many of these people said a scratching post was provided close to (within 5 foot of) the inappropriate scratching place.

The results get interesting when comparing the posts provided in homes where cats did not scratch inappropriately compared to the homes where they did. Those people who provided a rope scratching post were the least likely to have a problem with scratching. As well, cat trees with one or more levels were associated with low levels of problem scratching. Since cats like high up spaces, this is also a good way to provide enrichment for your cat.

Cats were also less likely to scratch inappropriately if they had a tall post that was more than 3foot high. This is useful to know because many posts for sale in pet stores are shorter than this. Scratching posts that hang from or are affixed to the wall were associated with high levels of inappropriate scratching, suggesting that many cats do not like this kind of post.

Most people who saw their cat scratching inappropriately either told it off, removed it or redirected it, but neither of these strategies had any effect on scratching behaviour. However, if people rewarded their cat for using the scratching post, they were significantly less likely to have a problem with inappropriate scratching. For the purposes of this study, rewards included food/treats, petting, and praise.

These results suggest that if your cat is scratching inappropriately, you should do two things. First of all, improve the scratching posts available to them. Although cats may have individual preferences, it seems like a good idea to have a tall rope (sisal) scratching post as well as a cat tree with different levels on it. Secondly, when your cat scratches the post, give them a reward such as a cat treat or some wet food.

Julie Hecht describes using just this approach with her cat Josh. If you want suggestions for food rewards to use when training cats, see my interview with Dr. Sarah Ellis on The Trainable Cat.

This is an especially helpful study because so many people took part. It would be very interesting to see it followed up with experimental work that provided new scratching posts to cats.

Sadly, a number of people who took part in the study could not be included in the analysis because their cat was declawed. Onychectomy (as declawing is technically called) is illegal in many countries. It is a painful, irreversible procedure that may leave cats with phantom pain that in turn may cause behaviour problems. Please do not declaw your cat; if you are having problems, seek out a qualified feline behaviour consultant.

Scratching is a natural behaviour for cats and they need a ‘safe’ outlet for it. This study is very useful because it tells us what kind of scratching posts we should provide – and that we should reward our cats for using them.

To stay up to date with the latest in Companion Animal Psychology, subscribe to Companion Animal Psychology.

What type(s) of scratching posts does your cat have?


Reference
Wilson C, Bain M, DePorter T, Beck A, Grassi V, & Landsberg G (2016). Owner observations regarding cat scratching behavior: an internet-based survey. Journal of feline medicine and surgery, 18 (10), 791-7 PMID: 26179574
Photos: Africa Studio (top) and Stefano Garau (both Shutterstock.com).

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.
Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

Irresistible: Emotions affect choice of breed despite welfare issues

animal welfare breeds dogs research science

Irresistible: Emotions affect choice of breed despite welfare issues

Comment  

Knowing a breed of dog may have health problems does not stop people from wanting one, because emotions get in the way. 

A new Danish study by Peter S Sandøe (University of Copenhagen) et al investigates the reasons why people acquire particular small breeds of dog and how attached the owners feel to their pet. The research helps explain why some breeds are popular despite a high incidence of welfare problems. 

The study looked at people in Denmark with French Bulldogs, Chihuahuas, Cavalier King Charles Spaniels, and Cairn Terriers.

The results suggest that even knowing a dog of a particular breed is likely to have health problems may not stop people from getting one, because of their emotional response to the breed. 

Lead author, Peter Sandøe told me in an email,

“In all, this study prompts the conclusion that the apparent paradox of people who love their dogs continuing to acquire dogs from breeds with breed-related welfare problems may not be perceived as a paradox from the point of view of prospective owners of breeds such as Chihuahuas and French Bulldogs.  

Thus apparently available information about the problems in these two breeds has not served to prevent their growing popularity because fundamental emotional responses to the phenotypic attributes of these breeds are highly effective positive motivators.”

Some owners did not prioritize health when getting their dog. As well, for owners of CKCS and Chihuahuas, those whose dog had more health/behaviour problems had a stronger attachment to the dog.

French Bulldogs and Chihuahuas were chosen for the study because of their tendency to have problems related to their conformation (or appearance). Cavalier King Charles Spaniels were chosen because they also tend to have health problems, but not related to what they look like. Finally, Cairn Terriers were picked because they are relatively healthy, so they make a good contrast.

There were differences in how people acquired the breeds. People with Chihuahuas were most likely to say there “wasn’t really any planning”, and they were also less likely than CKCS owners and French Bulldog owners to have put time into learning about dogs from books or dog professionals before getting it. Cairn Terrier owners were also less likely to have learned in this way, and more likely to rely on prior experience with the breed.

People were most likely to get Cairn Terriers and CKCS as puppies from breeders. (In Denmark most dogs come from small breeders with between 2 and 4 breeding bitches). Although breeders were still the most common source of Chihuahuas and French Bulldogs, these breeds had a greater tendency to be acquired from a previous owner (22% of Chihuahuas and 15% of French Bulldogs) or other sources. 

The researchers found that the dog’s distinctive appearance, breed attributes and convenience were all motivations in getting a dog. Personality was also important.

These motivations varied by breed. Distinctive appearance and personality were particularly important for owners of Cavalier King Charles Spaniels and French Bulldogs. For Chihuahua owners, these were less important, but convenience played a bigger role. Owners of Cairn Terriers were less motivated by appearance and more by breed attributes. 

Interestingly, these motivations were also linked to attachment. People who were motivated by distinctive appearance and breed attributes were very attached to their dog. 

The scientists say it’s possible that appearance is directly linked to levels of attachment, because facial features that are baby-like may induce parenting behaviours in the owner. This has also been suggested by previous research (see e.g. children’s preferences for baby-like features in dogs and the role of eyebrow movements in adopting shelter dogs).

The scientists say the motivations to acquire a dog can be seen as intrinsic (as for Cairn Terriers) or extrinsic (for the three other breeds, where cuteness, baby-like features and fashion play a role).

The researchers also collected data on health and behaviour problems. French Bulldogs had the highest levels of problems and the greatest expenses. Although only 67% had visited a vet in the last year for a health check, 29% had had a sudden illness or injury, and almost 9% had a chronic illness. 12% of French Bulldog owners had spent the equivalent of more than US$760 on vet bills in the previous year. 

Chihuahuas were the most likely to have a behaviour problem (10%) and to have dental problems (33%). Most Cavalier King Charles Spaniels had been for a health check (81%), 19% had had a sudden illness or injury, and 5.5% had a chronic illness. Cairn Terriers had fewer problems and the lowest expenditure at the vet.

Interestingly, owners of Cairn Terriers had the lowest levels of attachment, and Chihuahuas the highest, with French Bulldog and CKCS owners in between. For example, if we take the statement, “I would do almost anything to take care of my dog”, 70% of Chihuahua owners strongly agreed. For French Bulldog owners it was 62%, CKCS owners 56%, and only 43% of Cairn Terrier owners.

But perhaps this reflects decisions that owners had already had to make about their dog. The scientists wondered if health or behaviour issues would affect people’s desire to get another dog of the same breed. 

French Bulldog owners were actually the most likely to say “yes, for sure” they would get the same breed again (29%). Only 10% of French Bulldog owners were keen to get a different breed next time, compared to 25% of Chihuahua owners. (This number is higher than the percentage of Chihuahua owners who "for sure" wanted the same breed again, 17.5%). 

For three of the breeds (Cairn Terrier, CKCS and Chihuahua), health and behaviour issues did not have an effect on the likelihood of wanting the same breed again. But for French Bulldog owners, health/behaviour issues reduced the number who said they wanted the same again, from 31% for the majority with no issues, to 20% for those with one problem and 12% for those with two problems.

Data from Swedish insurance company Agria, obtained by the researchers, provides sobering information about the median age of death, as shown in the table (just 2.5 years for male French Bulldogs and 3.8 for females). 

Reproduced from PLOSOne under Creative Commons licence

French Bulldogs are very popular but they are brachycephalic, i.e. short-muzzled, which can cause breathing difficulties (including brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome) and eye problems. But the French Bulldog can also have what is known as a screwed bobtail (a short curly tail). Sometimes this malformation affects the spine and causes spinal problems. 

Chihuahuas are very small and this tiny, frail shape can cause many problems, including an extremely high risk of injury, knee problems (patellar luxation), and aggression because of fear.

Cavalier King Charles Spaniels suffer health problems as a result of being bred from a very small stock. They are prone to heart problems and to a neurological condition called syringomyelia, in which fluid-filled cavities build up on the spinal cord. Early signs include excessive scratching, generalized pain, and weakness in the limbs.

The scientists sent questionnaires to a representative sample of owner of the four breeds, and 846 people took part. This study is well-designed and has an excellent response rate (up to 45% for the owners of Cairn Terriers). It incorporates small breeds with very different types of health problems and lifespans, which makes the results so interesting.

The results suggest there is a real challenge for people trying to promote improved welfare, since it seems that factors other than good health are important contributors to the decision to get a puppy. People’s motivations to get each breed were different, and in some cases the features of the breed that potentially cause problems also tug on our heart strings. Care-giving might also increase the attachment bond.

If people love their dogs, it makes sense they would want the same breed again. 

This important study makes a valuable contribution to animal welfare. It would be very interesting if the researchers could follow up with the owners at a later date to see if the desire to get the same breed again changes over time. 

The paper is open access. 

What factors did you take into account when choosing your dog?

You might also like: Why do people choose certain dogs? and How to choose the right puppy in four easy steps.

Reference

Sandøe P,, Kondrup SV,, Bennett PC,, Forkman B,, Meyer I,, Proschowsky HF,, Serpell, JA,, & Lund, TB (2017). Why do people buy dogs with potential welfare problems related to extreme conformation and inherited disease? A representative study of Danish owners of four small dog breeds. PLOSOne
Photos: Patryk Kosmider (top); Joy Brown (middle); Marina Plevako (bottom). All Shutterstock.com.

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.
Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

The Function of Play Bows in Dog and Wolf Puppies

dogs play research science wolves

The Function of Play Bows in Dog and Wolf Puppies

Comment  

New research casts doubt on an old explanation for the play bow – and suggests it’s all about more play.

The play bow is a glorious signal in dogs. The bum goes up and the elbows go down, leaving the rear end sticking up, usually accompanied by a lovely happy face (as pictured above). Not just reserved for other dogs, our canine friends will play bow to us too.

Traditionally, it was believed that the play bow serves as a signal to say something like, “I’m just playing, it’s not real!”, because many of the behaviours dogs perform in play – chasing, growling, biting, nipping, etc – can also be aggressive. But recent research with adult dogs has thrown that into question.

In 2016, Sarah-Elizabeth Byosiere (University of Michigan), Julia Espinosa and Barbara Smuts looked at play bows between adult dogs. If the play bow functions to say “I’m only playing!” then you would expect to see more ‘offensive’ behaviour that could potentially be misinterpreted either just before or just after the play bow. They did not find this. Instead, both the bower and the bowee were typically still before the play bow happened. Afterwards play resumed in the form of chase sequences or both dogs rearing up.

In other words, the play bow seemed to function as a signal to make play start again after a pause (see: why do dogs play).

Byosiere et al concluded,

“the fact that both bowers and partners were often stationary before play bows and highly active after them (in the form of synchronous interactions or runaway/chase dynamics) supports the hypothesis that bows most often functioned to reinitiate play after a pause.”

But that study only looked at adult dogs. And in fact, dogs are not the only animal that play bows: coyotes, foxes, lions and wolves have all been seen to play bow. A new study by Byosiere et al investigates the role of play bows for dog and wolf puppies.

All of the puppies in this study were hand-reared, which means that the dogs and wolves have all grown up in a similar environment. The wolf pups were born in captivity and hand-reared in small groups; and the dog puppies were born in an animal shelter in Hungary and also hand-reared in the same way as the wolves.

The study analysed videos of dog-dog and wolf-wolf play in which at least one of the dogs or wolves was a puppy. The researchers coded play bows that were performed by the puppies during a play bout. The dog puppies were 2 – 5 months old, and the wolf puppies were 2.7 to 7.8 months.

It has been suggested before that the play bow is a visual communication signal, which means that it would be performed when the bower is in sight of the bowee. The results found this was the case, as previously found by Horowitz (2009).

Photo: Cryber; top, xkunclova; below, Warren Metcalf (all Shutterstock.com)

In the wolf puppies, every one of the 69 play bows coded was performed while the two were in visual contact. In the dog puppies, all but one of the 136 play bows was performed in sight of the other dog. And in the one case where the other dog was not looking, the bowee barked, suggesting they knew they needed to get their partner’s attention.

As described for the adult dog study, if the play bow is a signal to say “I’m just playing”, you would expect to see more ‘offensive’ behaviour immediately before or after it. This was not the case for either wolf or dog puppies prior to the play bow. After the play bow, the dog partners (i.e. the bowees) showed more offensive behaviours, which is contrary to this hypothesis.

The scientists also looked specifically at bites, and found there were no bite-shakes immediately before or after the play bows. This is surprising, because earlier work by Bekoff (1995) found that play bows were associated with bite-shakes. The difference might be because Bekoff looked at younger puppies. In fact there were few bites and nips in the videos of dogs and wolves used in this study.

Another possible reason for a play bow might be so that the bower is well-placed either to run away from or chase the other dog. In Byosiere’s earlier study with adult dogs, there was no evidence of it being used to attack the other dog in play, but it seemed possible it was used to escape.

In fact for the dog puppies, their partner (bowee) was more likely to play-attack them than the other way around. This was not found in wolves.

However, both wolf puppies and dog puppies were more likely to run away after the play bow, suggesting it positions them to escape.

As mentioned above, Byosiere’s study with adult dogs found that play bows tended to occur after a pause and serve to re-start play. This was the case for dog puppies, as both bower and bowee tended to be stationary before the play bow. In wolf puppies, however, this was not confirmed, although the bowees did tend to be still before the play bow.

Finally, it has also been suggested that play bows might serve to synchronize behaviours between the two partners after the bow. However, this was not found to be the case for either wolf or dog puppies.

The results of both studies are summarized in the table.

Reproduced from PLOSOne under Creative Commons Licence

The scientists write,

“Taken together, findings from this study and the previous study on adult dogs suggest that play bows do not occur at random and do not, therefore, simply enhance the play atmosphere in a general way. Instead, their association with particular behaviors before and after the play bow suggests strategic use of this play signal to accomplish immediate goals, including continuation of play by enticing the partner into a runaway/chase interaction.”

This study finds that the play bow is a visual signal for both dog and wolf puppies, but it does not serve to stop ‘offensive’ behaviours from being misinterpreted, as previously thought. In dogs, it seems to re-start play after a pause, however in wolf puppies the function is less clear. The authors suggest it may be that the intent is still to re-start play, but that it is less likely to be successful in wolves.

This is a fascinating study that will no doubt have many of us paying more attention to what happens before and after our dogs play bow.

The study of wolf and dog puppies is open access and can be read via the link below, while you can find the adult dog study via Sarah-Elizabeth Byosiere’s Researchgate profile.

What do you like about watching dogs play?

You might also like: Do hand-reared wolves get attached to their humans? and 6 reasons to love canine science.


References
Bekoff, M. (1995). Play Signals as Punctuation: the Structure of Social Play in Canids Behaviour, 132 (5), 419-429 DOI: 10.1163/156853995X00649
Byosiere SE, Espinosa J, & Smuts B (2016). Investigating the function of play bows in adult pet dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). Behavioural processes, 125, 106-13 PMID: 26923096
Byosiere SE, Espinosa J, Marshall-Pescini S, Smuts B, & Range F (2016). Investigating the Function of Play Bows in Dog and Wolf Puppies (Canis lupus familiaris, Canis lupus occidentalis). PloS one, 11 (12) PMID: 28033358
Horowitz A (2009). Attention to attention in domestic dog (Canis familiaris) dyadic play. Animal cognition, 12 (1), 107-18 PMID: 18679727

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.
Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.

Timing and Attention Matter in Dog Training, New Study Shows

dog training dogs research science

Timing and Attention Matter in Dog Training, New Study Shows

Comment  

Analysis of videos of dog training sessions show that getting the dog’s attention and good timing of rewards are linked to better results.

A new study looks at the interactions between people and dogs whilst teaching ‘lie down’. The results show the importance of the timing of rewards and of getting the dog’s attention in order to be successful in dog training.

The study is part of a wider research project at the University of Sydney into what they call “dogmanship.” I asked first author Dr. Elyssa Payne (University of Sydney) what this means.

“The formal definition for dogmanship is an individual's ability to interact with dogs,” she told me in an email. “So, someone with good dogmanship is more likely to get the best out of that dog (which could manifest in good obedience performance, working success or just a good companion relationship).”

The study analysed 43 videos of dogs being trained to lie down that the researchers found on Youtube. The scientists used sequence analysis, which looks at the sequential order of events (i.e. the person does X, then the dog does Y, then the person does Z…). They also used lag sequential analysis to see what happens after a lag of 1 second, 2 seconds and 3 seconds (e.g. person does X, 1s later dog is doing Y…).

They looked at it from both perspectives, i.e. what the dog does following the person’s behaviour, and what the person does following the dog’s behaviour. The results show the interactive dance between people and their dogs during a training session.

For example, the person bends over, and 1s later the dog might be recorded as lying down, pawing the owner, or jumping up. At a lag of 3s after the person bent over, dogs were seen lying down, in incomplete recumbency (i.e. partially lying down), or pawing the owner.

Dr. Elyssa Payne told me,

“The key results of our DogTube paper were that certain human behaviours (in this case looking at the dog and non-speech vocalisations such as kissing noises) are more likely to attract dog attention while dog attention was more likely to wane immediately after a food reward. So, dog trainers should be mindful of their animal's attention and time food rewards according to training goals. 

“Our analysis also highlights the usefulness of attention gaining mechanisms that are more unique to training sessions (e.g. kissing noises, whistles or tongue clicking), although these are time sensitive (dog is likely to respond within 1 second).”

After a food reward was given, dogs stopped looking at their owner. The researchers suggest several possible reasons, including the dog directing their attention to the food, preferring to look away from people whilst in possession of food, or because they were sniffing the ground (perhaps checking for any dropped food).

The two human behaviours of bending over and of both hands touching the dog tended to result in the dog pawing at them or making a noise (barking and whining were both included in this category).

People responded to the dog’s behaviour too. They seemed to notice when their dog was looking away from them and responded by looking at the dog; they also noticed lip licks as this was another time when they tended to look at the dog.

Looking at the dog and making non-speech noises (such as the aforementioned kissy sound) usually resulted in getting the dog to look at the person.

The person’s body position was important for the dog’s behaviour at all of the time lags. If the person was bent over, kneeling or crouched down, the dog was likely to be lying down 1 second, 2 seconds and/or 3 seconds later.

However, when the dog was only partially lying down (i.e. the chest was not on the floor or they were in a play bow position instead), the human was typically bent over only at 2 seconds before hand, or crouching or kneeling at 3 seconds beforehand (but not 1 or 2 seconds before). I think this suggests the person has not held their position long enough. (In the early stages of teaching a dog to lie down, when using a lure or a large hand signal, you may have to hold in position for a little while and wait for the dog to lie down).

Most of the people in the videos used food rewards, and 143 rewards were given in total across all of the videos, with 42 instances of a clicker being used. Other methods people used included tightening the leash, leash corrections, and pushing the dog.

Of course, Youtube videos may not be representative of dog trainers in general, and information about the trainers and dogs (such as prior training experience) is lacking. The videos seem to cover a range of training methods and abilities which is nice. We can't infer a causal relationship from the results. The study takes advantage of an easily-available source of data, and the videos are likely more naturalistic than if people had gone into the lab to train in front of the researchers.

Although it’s no surprise that human behaviour affects dogs, the specifics of the results are useful. And there’s an important implication. The scientists write that “This information has implications for dog-human interactions in an obedience setting but also underlines the possibility that dogs that are perceived as difficult to train may be in the hands of people who lack the timing and awareness that characterize good dogmanship.”

The good news is that your timing, body position, and attention-getting are all things you can improve if you want to.

You might like my user-friendly guide to positive reinforcement in dog training, and my list of research studies on dog training (which includes links to places you can read about them). And if you want to work on your dog training skills in a class setting, see how to choose a dog trainer.

How have your dog training skills improved since you first started to train dogs?


Reference
Payne, E., Bennett, P., & McGreevy, P. (2017). DogTube: An examination of dogmanship online Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 17, 50-61 DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2016.10.006
Photos:  Maksyn Gorpenyuk and gillmar (both Shutterstock.com).

Companion Animal Psychology is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com and affiliated sites.
Companion Animal Psychology is also a participant in the Etsy Affiliate Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Etsy.com.